Declaration of Philippine Independence
(Translation
by Sulpicio Guevara)
In the town of Cavite Viejo, Province
of Cavite, this 12th day of June 1898:
BEFORE ME, Ambrosio Rianzares
Bautista, War Counsellor and Special Delegate designated to proclaim and
solemnize this Declaration of Independence by the Dictatorial Government of the
Philippines, pursuant to, and by virtue of, a Decree issued by the Egregious
Dictator Don Emilio Aguinaldo y Famy, The undersigned assemblage of military
chiefs and others of the army who could not attend, as well as the
representatives of the various towns, Taking into account the fact that the
people of this country are already tired of bearing the ominous yoke of Spanish
domination, Because of arbitrary arrests and abuses of the Civil Guards who
caused deaths in connivance with and even under the express orders of their
superior officers, who at times would order the shooting of those placed under
arrest under the pretext that they attempted to escape in violation of known
Rules and Regulations, which abuses were left unpunished; and because of unjust
deportations of illustrious Filipinos, especially those decreed by General
Blanco at the instigation of the Archbishop and friars interested in keeping
them in ignorance for egoistic and selfish ends, which deportations were
carried out through processes more execrable than those of the Inquisition,
which every civilized nation repudiates as a trial without hearing, Had
resolved to start a revolution in August 1896 in order to regain the
independence and sovereignty of which the people had been deprived by Spain
through Governor Miguel Lopez de Legazpi, who, continuing the course followed
by his predecessor Ferdinand Magellan who landed on the shores of Cebu and
occupied said island by means of a Pact of Friendship with Chief Tupas,
although he was killed in the battle that took place on said shores, to which
battle he was provoked by Chief Kalipulako** of Mactan who suspected his evil
designs, landed on the Island of Bohol by entering also into a Blood Compact
with its Chief Sikatuna, with the purpose of later taking by force the Island
of Cebu; and because his successor Tupas did not allow him to occupy it, he
went to Manila, the capital, winning likewise the friendship of its Chiefs
Soliman and Lakandula, later taking possession of the city and the whole
Archipelago in the name of Spain by virtue of an order of King Philip II. And
with these historical precedents, and because in international law the
prescription established by law to legalize the vicious acquisition of private
property is not recognized, the legitimacy of such revolution cannot be put in
doubt, which was calmed but not completely stifled by the pacification proposed
by Don Pedro A. Paterno with Don Emilio Aguinaldo as President of the Republic
established in Biak na Bato and accepted by Governor General Don Fernando Primo
de Rivera under terms, both written and oral, among them being a general
amnesty for all deported and convicted persons; that by reason of the
nonfulfillment of some of the terms, after the destruction of the plaza of
Cavite, Don Emilio Aguinaldo returned in order to initiate a new revolution,
and no sooner had he given the order to rise on the 31st of last month when
several towns, anticipating the revolution, rose in revolt on the 28th, such
that a Spanish contingent of 178 men between Imus and Cavite Viejo, under the
command of a major of the Marine Infantry, capitulated the revolutionary
movement spreading like wildfire to other towns of Cavite and the other
provinces of Bataan, Pampanga, Batangas, Bulacan, Laguna, and Morong, some of
them with seaports and such was the success of the victory of our arms, truly
marvelous and without equal in the history of colonial revolutions, that in the
first mentioned province only the detachments in Naic and Indang remained to
surrender; in the second, all detachments had been wiped out; in the third, the
resistance of the Spanish forces was localized in the town of San Fernando
where the greater part of them are concentrated, the remainder in Macabebe,
Sexmoan, and Guagua; in the fourth, in the town of Lipa; in the fifth, in the
capital and in Calumpit; and in the last two remaining provinces, only in their
respective capitals. And the city of Manila will soon be besieged by our
forces, as well as the provinces of Nueva Ecija, Tarlac, Pangasinan, La Union,
Zambales, and some others in the Visayas where the revolution, at the time of
the pacification and others even before, so that the independence of our
country and the vindication of our sovereignty is assured.
And having as witness to the
rectitude of our intentions the Supreme Judge of the Universe, and under the protection
of our Powerful and Humanitarian Nation, the United States of America, we do
hereby proclaim and declare solemnly in the name and by authority of the people
of these Philippine Islands, That they are and have the right to be free and
independent; that they have ceased to have allegiance to the Crown of Spain;
that all political ties between them should be completely severed and annulled;
and that, like other free and independent States, they enjoy the full power to
make war and peace, conclude commercial treaties, enter into alliances,
regulate commerce, and do all other acts and things which an independent State
has the right to do.
And imbued with firm confidence in
Divine Providence, we hereby mutually bind ourselves to support this Declaration
with our lives, our fortunes, and with our sacred possession—our Honor.
We recognize, approve, and ratify,
with all the orders emanating from the same, the Dictatorship established by
Don Emilio Aguinaldo, whom we revere as the Supreme Head of this Nation, which
today begins to have a life of its own, in the conviction that he has been the
instrument chosen by God, in spite of his humble origin, to effectuate the
redemption of this unfortunate country as foretold by Dr. Don Jose Rizal in his
magnificent verses which he composed in his prison cell prior to his execution,
liberating it from the yoke of Spanish domination,
And in punishment for the impunity
with which the Government sanctioned the commission of abuses by its officials,
and for the unjust execution of Rizal and others who were sacrificed in order
to please the insatiable friars in their hydropical thirst for vengeance
against and extermination of all those who oppose their Machiavellian ends,
trampling upon the Penal Code of these Islands, and of those suspected persons
arrested by the Chiefs of Detachments at the instigation of the friars, without
any form nor semblance of trial and without any spiritual aid of our sacred
Religion; and likewise, and for the same ends, eminent Filipino priests, Doctor
Don Jose Burgos, Don Mariano Gomez, and Don Jacinto Zamora were hanged whose
innocent blood was shed due to the intrigues of these so called religious
corporations which made the authorities believe that the military uprising at
the fort of San Felipe in Cavite on the night of January 21, 1872 was instigated
by those Filipino martyrs thereby impeding the execution of the decree sentence
issued by the Council of State in the appeal in the administrative case
interposed by the secular clergy against the Royal Orders that directed that
the parishes under them within the jurisdiction of this Bishopric be turned
over to the Recollects in exchange for those controlled by them in Mindanao
which were to be transferred to the Jesuits, thus revoking them completely and
ordering the return of those parishes, all of which proceedings are on file
with the Ministry of Foreign Affairs to which they were sent last month of the
year of the issuance of the proper Royal Decree, which, in turn, caused the
growth of the tree of liberty in our dear land that grew more and more through
the iniquitous measures of oppression, until the last drop of our chalice of
suffering having been drained, the first spark of revolution broke out in
Caloocan, spread out to Santa Mesa and continued its course to the adjoining
regions of the province where the unequalled heroism of its inhabitants fought
a one sided battle against superior forces of General Blanco and General
Polavieja for a period of three months, without proper arms nor ammunition,
except bolos, pointed bamboos, and arrows.
Moreover, we confer upon our famous
Dictator Don Emilio Aguinaldo all the powers necessary to enable him to
discharge the duties of Government, including the prerogatives of granting
pardon and amnesty.
And lastly, it was resolved
unanimously that this Nation, already free and independent as of this day, must
use the same flag which up to now is being used, whose design and colors are described
in the attached drawing the white triangle signifying the distinctive emblem of
the famous Society of the "Katipunan," which by means of its blood
compact inspired the masses to rise in revolution; the three stars signifying
the three principal islands of this Archipelago Luzon, Mindanao, and Panay where
the revolutionary movement started; the sun representing the gigantic step made
by the sons of the country along the path of Progress and Civilization; the
eight rays signifying the eight provinces Manila, Cavite, Bulacan, Pampanga,
Nueva Ecija, Bataan, Laguna, and Batangas which declared themselves in a state
of war as soon as the first revolt was initiated; and the colors of blue, red,
and white commemorating the flag of the United States of America, as a
manifestation of our profound gratitude toward this Great Nation for its
disinterested protection which it lent us and continues lending us.
And holding up this flag of ours, I
present it to the gentlemen here assembled
…
Who solemnly swear to recognize and
defend it unto the last drop of their blood.
In witness thereof, I certify that
this Act of Declaration of Independence was signed by me and by all those here
assembled, including the only stranger who attended those proceedings, a
citizen of the United States of America, Mr. L. M. Johnson, a Colonel of Artillery.
Ambrosio Rianzares Bautista
War Counsellor and Special Delegate
Designate
The Malolos Constitution, 1899
The Malolos
Constitution, also known as the Political Constitution of 1899, was ratified on
January 21, 1899. It holds the distinction of being the first republican
constitution in Asia, having been drafted by representatives of the Filipino
people. Its provisions explicitly proclaim the Philippines as a free and
independent nation. The Constitution affirms that sovereignty resides in the
people, who are the ultimate source of governmental authority. It establishes a
republican system with three branches of government legislative, executive, and
judicial and defines citizenship while recognizing the fundamental rights and
duties of citizens.
The Government structure of the Philippine
Executive Branch
Executive
power belongs to the President of the Republic and shall be exercised through
the Department Secretaries (Article 56, Malolos Constitution, 1899). The
President was supported by Cabinet members. The departments included War,
Finance, Foreign Affairs, and Public Instruction.
Legislative Branch
Legislative
power shall be exercised by an Assembly of Representatives of the Nation. This
Assembly shall be organized in the form and manner determined by law (Article
33, Malolos Constitution, 1899). The legislative branch was unicameral and
responsible for enacting laws, approving budgets, and overseeing the executive
branch through a system of checks and balances.
Judicial Branch
The highest
court was the Supreme Court, tasked with interpreting laws and upholding
justice. Under the provisions of the Constitution, the Chief Justice of the
Supreme Court and the Solicitor General were to be chosen by the National
Assembly in concurrence with the President of the Republic and the Secretaries
of Government. They were to remain absolutely independent of both the
Legislative and Executive branches (Article 80, Malolos Constitution, 1899).
Separation of Powers
The
Constitution ensured a clear separation of powers among the three branches of
government.
Under
American jurisprudence, the Supreme Court held that it is the duty of the
Legislature to make the law, the Executive to execute the law, and the
Judiciary to interpret the law. The Legislature has no authority to execute or
interpret the law; the Executive has no authority to make or interpret the law;
and the Judiciary has no power to make or execute the law. Subject only to the
Constitution, the power of each branch is supreme within its own jurisdiction.
It is the Judiciary alone that may determine whether any act of the Legislature
is constitutional or not. (The United States v. Ang Tang Ho, G.R. No. 17122,
February 27, 1922)
Checks and Balances
The
Constitution provides for an elaborate system of checks and balances to ensure coordination
among the various departments of government. In cases of conflict, the judicial
department is the only constitutional organ that may be called upon to
determine the proper allocation of powers between the departments and among
their integral or constituent units (Angara v. Electoral Commission, G.R. No.
45081, July 15, 1936). Each department of government is interdependent and does
not assert superiority over the others.
Rights of the Filipinos
Habeas Corpus
On May 16,
1951, Vicente Lava, a member of the Communist Party of the Philippines, was
detained without trial during the height of anti-communist sentiment in the
country. The Supreme Court held that the detention was unconstitutional and
ordered his release. In its ruling, the Court underscored the importance of the
writ of habeas corpus and the principles of the right to a fair trial, as
recognized under the Malolos Constitution. (People of the Philippines v. Jose
Lava, et al., G.R. No. L-4974–4978)
Who are Filipinos?
According to the Malolos
Constitution, the following are considered Filipinos:
1. All persons born within Philippine territory. A vessel
of Philippine registry is, for this purpose, considered part of Philippine
territory.
2. Children of a Filipino father or mother, even if born
outside the Philippines.
3. Foreigners who have obtained a certificate of
naturalization.
4. Those who, without such certificate, have acquired
domicile in any town within Philippine territory.
It is understood that domicile is
acquired through uninterrupted residence for two years in any locality within
Philippine territory, with an open abode, a known occupation, and regular
contribution to all taxes imposed by the Nation.
The condition of being a Filipino may be lost in
accordance with law.
Rights to Dwelling and Property
No one
shall enter the dwelling house of any Filipino or any foreigner residing in the
Philippines without their consent, except in urgent cases of fire, inundation,
earthquake, or similar dangers; by reason of unlawful aggression from within;
or in order to assist a person therein who cries for help.
Outside of
these cases, entry into the dwelling house of any Filipino or foreign resident
in the Philippines, or the search of their papers and effects, may only be
authorized by a competent court and executed during daytime. The search of
papers and effects must always be conducted in the presence of the person being
searched, or a member of their family; in their absence, two residents of the
same locality must serve as witnesses.
However,
when a criminal caught in flagrante delicto takes refuge in their dwelling
house, authorities in pursuit may enter it solely for the purpose of making an
arrest. If the criminal takes refuge in the dwelling house of a foreigner, the
consent of the latter must first be obtained. (Article 10, Malolos
Constitution, 1899)
Freedom of Speech and the Right to Redress Grievances Against the
Government
No Filipino shall be deprived of:
1. The right to freely express ideas or opinions, orally
or in writing, through the press or other similar means.
2. The right of association for purposes consistent with
human dignity and not contrary to public morals.
3. The right to send petitions to the authorities,
individually or collectively.
The right of petition shall not be
exercised through any form of armed force. (Article 20, Malolos Constitution,
1899)
Liberty abode and changing the same.
No Filipino
who is in full enjoyment of political and civil rights shall be impeded in the
right to travel freely abroad or to transfer residence or possessions to
another country, except in relation to obligations concerning military service
or the payment of public taxes.
(Article 25, Malolos Constitution,
1899)
Women’s Struggle for Suffrage: Filipino Voices in the Fight for
Political Inclusion
Women were
not granted the right to vote under the 1899 Malolos Constitution. Suffrage was
limited to male Filipino citizens, reflecting the global norms of the late 19th
century when political rights were mostly reserved for men (Agoncillo, 1990).
This exclusion happened even though many Filipino women played important roles
in the revolution. Melchora Aquino, known as the “Mother of the Philippine Revolution,”
and Gregoria de Jesus, founder of the Katipunan’s women’s chapter, helped
organize resistance and protect revolutionary documents (Roces, 2012). However,
their contributions were not formally recognized in the political system of the
First Philippine Republic.
The lack of
women’s voting rights in the Malolos Constitution shows that early
nation-building did not fully recognize women’s role in society. While the
Constitution introduced democratic ideas and civil liberties, it did not extend
these rights to all citizens equally. It would take nearly forty years of
advocacy before Filipino women gained the right to vote. This milestone came
with the 1935 Constitution, which allowed women’s suffrage after a successful
plebiscite held on April 30, 1937. More than 447,725 Filipino women voted in
favor of suffrage well beyond the required 300,000 (Philippine Commission on
Women, n.d.; Official Gazette, n.d.).
This victory was the result of years of organizing by pioneering Filipinas such as Pura Villanueva Kalaw, Concepcion Felix de Calderon, and Rosa Sevilla de Alvero, who led petitions, built coalitions, and pushed for legal reform (Roces, 2012). Their efforts helped shape a more inclusive democracy and paved the way for future generations of women leaders.
References
Agoncillo, T. A. (1990). History
of the Filipino people (8th ed.). Quezon City: Garotech Publishing.
Aguilar, F. V. (1998). The First
Philippine Republic (1899–1901): From revolution to sovereignty. In E. A.
Ordonez (Ed.), The Philippine Revolution and Beyond. Manila: National
Commission for Culture and the Arts.
Kalaw, M. M. (1927). The
development of Philippine politics (1872–1920). Manila: Oriental Commercial
Company.
Official Gazette. (n.d.). The
1935 Constitution. Retrieved August 26, 2025, from
https://www.officialgazette.gov.ph
Philippine Commission on Women.
(n.d.). Filipino women and the vote. Retrieved August 26, 2025, from
https://pcw.gov.ph
Roces, M. (2012). Women’s
movements and the Filipina, 1986–2008. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press.
Santos, H. (1999). The Philippine
history. Manila: National Bookstore.
Supreme Court E-Library. (n.d.).
Malolos Constitution: Political Constitution. Retrieved August 26, 2025, from
https://elibrary.judiciary.gov.ph/thebookshelf/showdocs/3/365
Wikipedia contributors. (n.d.).
Malolos Constitution. Wikipedia. Retrieved August 26, 2025, from https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malolos_Constitution
MSC Institute of Technology.
(n.d.). Philippine history: The Malolos Congress. Retrieved August 26, 2025,
from http://www.msc.edu.ph/centennial/malolos.html
Philippine-History.org. (n.d.).
The Malolos Congress: First Philippine Republic. Retrieved August 26, 2025,
from https://www.philippine-history.org/malolos-congress.htm
LawPhil Project. (n.d.). Malolos
Constitution (1899). Retrieved August 26, 2025, from
https://lawphil.net/consti/consmalo.html
MSC Institute of Technology.
(n.d.). Declaration of Philippine Independence. Retrieved August 26, 2025, from
https://msc.edu.ph/centennial/declaration.html
Hyperlocal. (n.d.). Philippine
Independence Day. Retrieved August 26, 2025, from
https://hyperlocal.ph/philippine-independence-day/
History.com Editors. (n.d.).
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https://www.history.com/this-day-in-history/philippine-independence-declared
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