Meaning of History, Sources of History Data and Historical Criticism

History as a Social Science

History is considered a social science because it systematically studies human societies, their institutions, and interactions over time. Historians collect and analyze data from various sources to understand how societies have evolved and how past events have shaped the present. By examining political, economic, social, and cultural factors, history helps identify patterns and trends in human behavior. It intersects with other social sciences, such as sociology and economics, providing a comprehensive understanding of the complexities of human life. Through critical thinking and interpretation, history contributes to our knowledge of the world, enabling us to learn from the past and make informed decisions for the future (Cole et al., n.d.).

What is Historiography?

According to the Oxford Dictionary, historiography refers to "the study of historical writing" or "the writing of history". In simpler terms, it involves crafting historical narratives through the analysis of authentic sources. These sources may include written texts or non-written artifacts—the latter commonly referred to as material evidence.
Traditionally, conducting historical research involves visiting libraries and archives to collect documents that serve as evidence of specific events. This process often incorporates research methods from various disciplines, such as geography and archaeology, to provide a more comprehensive understanding of the past.

Problems in the Process of Re-creation

The absence of comprehensive evidence for a phenomenon limits our historical understanding. Obtaining historical records can be challenging; often, only fragments survive, or no records remain at all making it difficult to accurately depict or explain past events. This challenge also extends to the material evidence uncovered by archaeologists.

Historians must reconstruct the past using information that demonstrates verisimilitude, which refers to the appearance of being true or real and encompasses the truthfulness, authenticity, and reliability of the evidence (Oxford Languages, 2025).

Historical Analysis

Historical analysis involves examining the past to understand the reasons and processes behind the unfolding of events. Rather than merely focusing on the "who, what, where, and when," historians delve into cause-and-effect relationships, exploring how individuals, ideas, and perspectives influenced one another and contributed to historical developments (Cole et al., n.d.).

What is Historical Data?

Historical data refers to information gathered about past events or specific subjects. This data may consist of witness testimonies or artifacts, such as relics or remains. Examples of relics or remains include items like coins, vases, manuscripts, and books. Witness testimonies can be presented in oral or written forms, including property exchanges, speeches, or personal accounts.

Written sources of history

Written sources of history, as categorized by Howell and Prevenier in From Reliable Sources: An Introduction to Historical Methods (2001), are essential tools for reconstructing and interpreting the past. These sources can be grouped into the following categories:

Narrative or Literature Sources

These include structured series of events linked by cause and effect. They often reflect cultural, personal, or societal perspectives.

Newspaper Article – A written work published in print or digital format, aimed at disseminating news, research findings, academic analysis, or fostering debate.

Diary – A daily written account of personal experiences and observations.

Memoir – A narrative form that recounts the personal experiences of the writer.

Novel – A printed and bound book representing an extended work of fiction.

Film – A medium of entertainment that tells a story through sound and a sequence of images, creating the illusion of continuous movement.

Biography – A detailed account chronicling the significant events of an individual's life.

Hagiography – A biography that idealizes or glorifies its subject, often focusing on a saintly figure.

Diplomatic Sources.

These are documents or records that reflect an existing legal situation.

Jurisprudence – The body of rules established by authority.

Treaties – Binding agreements made under international law between states and international organizations.

Social Documents 

These are internal records maintained by the government.

Civil Registry Records – Official government records documenting vital events such as births, marriages, and deaths of citizens and residents.

Property Records – Documentation derived from the registry of deeds or legal documents related to personal or real property.

Non-written Sources of History

There are two main categories of non-written sources:

Material Evidence – This includes tangible artifacts, often referred to as archaeological evidence, such as structures like houses and churches, as well as objects like pottery and jewelry.

Oral Evidence – This encompasses stories and sagas passed down verbally by ancient peoples, along with folk songs, traditions, and rituals.

Primary vs. Secondary Sources 

Primary sources provide direct, first-hand accounts of an event or historical time period. Created at or close to the time under study, these factual materials offer raw evidence without added analysis or interpretation; common examples include diaries, journals, government records, letters, testimonies, paintings, drawings, and sculptures. In contrast, secondary sources offer later interpretations and analyses of historical events, synthesizing primary data rather than documenting it directly. Examples of secondary sources include biographies, literary criticism, and books written by third parties about historical topics.

What Is Historical Criticism? 

Historicism, also referred to as higher criticism, examines the origins of early texts to gain insight into the circumstances surrounding their creation (Soulen & Soulen, 2001). This approach has two main objectives: first, to uncover the original meaning of the text, and second, to reconstruct the historical context of both the author and the intended audience.

Types of Historical Criticism 

Historical criticism is generally divided into two types: external and internal. 

External criticism focuses on evaluating the authenticity of a text. It involves paleographical analysis, which determines the dating of historical manuscripts, and diplomatic criticism, which investigates the document's origin, its transmission, and the relationships among the facts presented. 

nternal criticism, on the other hand, analyzes the information within the document itself. This includes a detailed examination of the source’s character, the author’s knowledge, and the contextual influences that may have affected the writing process.

References

Soulen, R. N., & Soulen, R. K. (2001). Handbook of Biblical Criticism (3rd ed.). Westminster John Knox Press.

Cole, S., Breuer, K., Palmer, S. W., & Blakeslee, B. (n.d.). What is historical analysis? In How history is made: A student’s guide to reading, writing, and thinking in the discipline. Mavs Open Press.

Oxford Languages. (n.d.). Verisimilitude. In Oxford English Dictionary. Retrieved August 22, 2025, from https://www.oxfordlearnersdictionaries.com/definition/english/verisimilitude

Green, M. B. (2025, April 10). What is a narrative — Definition, examples in literature and film. StudioBinder. Retrieved from https://www.studiobinder.com/blog/what-is-a-narrative/

Steinmetz, K. (2017, June 23). This is where the word ‘history’ comes from. TIME. Retrieved from https://time.com/4820559/history-word-origin/

STANDS4 LLC. (2025). Memoir. Definitions.net. Retrieved from https://www.definitions.net/definition/memoir

STANDS4 LLC. (n.d.). Newspaper article. Definitions.net. Retrieved from https://www.definitions.net/definition/newspaper+article

TheFreeDictionary. (n.d.). Diaries. Retrieved from https://www.thefreedictionary.com/diaries

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Ligan, J., et al. (n.d.). Reading in Philippine History. Bataan Peninsula State University. Retrieved from CliffsNotes